分枝杆菌在建筑供水系统中的存在水平与控制技术研究
0 引言
随着我国经济发展, 环境恶化, 水污染现象加剧, 地下和地表水源受污染情况严重。我国已有75%的水源受到了不同程度的污染, 近90%的城镇饮水和近50%的地下水水源受污染
为保障水厂出水生物安全, 氯消毒技术被广泛应用
据统计, 1996~2006年期间, 我国共发生271起饮用水污染突发事件 (未含西藏) , 其中有63%的事件可归为生物污染事件
我国饮用水水质标准《生活饮用水卫生标准》, 于1985年首次建立, 之后于2006年修订, 2014年我国制定了《食品安全国家标准包装饮用水》 (GB19298—2014) 标准。针对水质生物安全, 这些标准在制定与修订时参考了世界卫生组织 (WHO) 、美国环保局 (USEPA) 和欧盟 (EC) 等国际组织颁布的水质标准。修订后的《生活饮用水卫生标准》 (GB5749-2006) 中, 水质指标由36项增加到106项, 微生物学指标由旧标准的2项增至6项
国内外对城市供水系统中分枝杆菌的研究日益增多, 城市供水系统主要由水源、净水厂、市政与建筑供水系统构成, 而分枝杆菌在其中多个环节中被检出
1 建筑供水系统中分枝杆菌的检测方法及其研究进展
分枝杆菌主要包括麻风分枝杆菌、结核杆菌复合群和非结核分枝杆菌。分枝杆菌的250多种菌种中
分枝杆菌属于条件致病菌, 其中鸟分支杆菌 (Mycobacterium aviumcomplex, MAC) 已列入USEPA的潜在污染物名单, MAC可以在供水管网中大量生长, 并引发安全风险
从1931年发明罗氏培养基 (L-J) , 1937年发现分枝杆菌噬菌体, 到1938年发现一种常见的NTM—偶然分枝杆菌, 由此分子生物学成为重要的环境监测手段, 从分子水平了解了分枝杆菌的基因和遗传本质
1.1 PCR菌种鉴定
PCR菌种鉴定法是指用分枝杆菌特异性引物对标本DNA进行一系列PCR扩增或多重PCR扩增, PCR可以选择性扩增来自靶微生物的标记基因, 其产物可通过琼脂糖凝胶电泳观察, 根据扩增产物的特异性片段进行鉴定
表1分枝杆菌属分子生物学基本特征
特征 |
分枝杆菌属 | |
分枝杆菌科16SrRNA基因特征性核苷酸 |
250 (U) , 316-337 (C-G) , 418-425 (C-G) , 599-639 (U-G) , 662-743 (C-G) , 833-853 (U-G) , 842 (U) , 987-1218 (G-C) , 998-1043 (G-U) , 1000-1040 (C-G) , 1030 (U) , 1137 (A) 及1362 (C) ;典型属为分枝杆菌 (Mycobacterium) 是该科目前唯一的属[29, 30] | |
表观特征 |
抗酸, 无内生孢子或分生孢子;呈微弯或直形或分支或菌丝体状, 不同菌种在不同生长条件下呈现多形状;菌落光滑或粗糙, 呈乳白色、米色或橙色 | |
分类 |
生长速度 |
在适宜条件下, 7 d以内长出肉眼可见单个菌落的为快生长分枝杆菌, 7 d以上长出肉眼可见单个菌落的为慢生长分枝杆菌[20] |
营养要求 |
可分为寄生菌、腐生菌和中间类型菌 | |
色素形成 |
可分为不产色素型、光照产色型和暗产色型 | |
化学分类特征 |
细胞壁CW-IV型, 含Meso-DAP;糖型A, 含阿拉伯糖和半乳糖;含碳原子数目为60~90的长链枝菌酸, 磷酸类脂型为P-II型, 主要甲基萘醌为MK-9 (H2) | |
分子分类特征 |
DNA (G+C) 含量为61%~71% | |
典型种 |
结核分枝杆菌[31] | |
典型菌株 |
H37RV=ATCC 27294 | |
分布 |
广泛分布于土壤、水和动物;多为致病菌, 可引起人类和动物的结核病, 麻风病和慢性坏死性肉芽肿 |
1.2 荧光定量PCR (qPCR) 技术
qPCR技术是在PCR反应体系中加入荧光素或在引物末端偶联荧光基团, 利用荧光信号累积实时监测PCR 进程, 最后通过标准曲线对未知模板进行定量分析, 其特异性强、灵敏度高、定量准确、速度快, 是分子生物学研究中的重要工具
Hussein等
1.3 活细菌PCR技术 (Viable PCR)
前述PCR 或 qPCR的主要缺点为无法区分DNA的活细胞或死细胞
1.4 高通量DNA测序
高通量DNA测序可对数百万个核酸片段进行快速同时测序
高通量测序分辨率有限, 宏基因组测序可直接通过DNA提取物片段进行测序, 而无需事先扩增DNA或选择靶基因, 是实现高分辨率鉴定的一种新方法。表2是对上述4种检测方法的实际应用。
2 建筑供水系统中分枝杆菌的存在水平与影响因素
为用户终端供水的建筑供水系统包含建筑给水系统和建筑热水系统。由于建筑供水管网非环状布置方式, 造成管道中水的停留时间较长, 管道末梢水 (水龙头处) 的消毒剂含量低, 有利于微生物的形成与生长
Taylor和Norton等
表2分枝杆菌属检测方法的应用
检测分支杆菌属 |
方法 | 样品特征 | 说明 | 参考文献 |
/ | qPCR | 医院水环境 | qPCR检测敏感性高、周期短, 与传统检测方法所得结果完全一致 | [33] |
M.xenopi M.flavescens M.gordonae |
qPCR | 医院供水系统 | qPCR可以被用作评估NTM在水系统总体负荷的一项措施 | [34] |
Mycobacterium spp. |
qPCR | 饮用水及环境样品 | 针对atpE基因的qPCR可用于高度特异性检测和精确定量分枝杆菌 | [36] |
M.avium subsp. paratuberculosis |
qPCR | 饮用水系统及生物膜 | q-PCR比细菌培养的检测数量高, 检测率低 | [47] |
M.kansasii M.chelonae M.abscessus |
PCR-RELP | 环境样品 | 在PCR-RFLP 基础上研制了线性探针反向杂交法 (INNO-LiPA) | [48, 49] |
MAC |
多重qPCR | 氯和氯胺消毒的饮用水供水系统 | / | [50] |
M.fortuitum |
PMA-qPCR | 氯消毒、紫外和臭氧工艺前后水样 | PMA-qPCR在确定M. fortuitum的活细菌时更有效 | [39] |
M.avium subsp. M.abscessus M.chelonae |
高通量测序 | 饮用水 | 结合NTM rpoB基因的高通量单分子实时测序, 可以鉴定到NTM种、亚种以及部分菌株 | [51] |
M.avium |
高通量测序 | 城市娱乐用水 | 高通量测序和qPCR可用于全面检测城市娱乐用水中的细菌病原体多样性和病原体丰度 | [52] |
2.1 建筑供水系统中分枝杆菌的存在水平
2.1.1 分枝杆菌在建筑给水系统中的存在水平
Briancesco等
非结核分枝杆菌 (NTM) 可能在给水系统中大量繁殖, 目前缺少有效灭活NTM的方法。迄今为止, 国外学者对用户终端水中NTM存在水平的研究比较多, 国内相关研究较少。相比欧洲发达国家, 我国水源普遍受到污染, 微生物指标与国外存在差异, 用水安全仍存在风险
2.1.2 分枝杆菌在建筑热水系统中的存在水平
澳大利亚学者
热水系统中的分枝杆菌检出率通常高于给水系统, 这与水样温度、余氯以及建筑功能等相关因素有关。我国目前研究有关分枝杆菌存在水平的影响因素仍然较少, 只有掌握分枝杆菌生长条件与影响因素才能制定标准检测方法并提出控制技术。表3分析了近年来国内外不同类型的建筑供水系统的分枝杆菌的存在水平, 其中住宅、宾馆供水系统中的检出率高于医院供水系统。
表3建筑供水系统分枝杆菌调查统计
国家 (时间) |
M. Go |
M. Fl |
M. Ka |
M. Ch |
M. Fo |
M. Mu |
M. Rh |
M. Pe |
M. Av |
M. Te |
M. Le |
M. In |
样本 数量 |
样本来源 |
检出率 /% |
说明 |
德国[64] (1991) | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | 72 | 住宅供水 | 85 | 最高检测浓度为4.5×105 CFU/L | |||||||
墨西哥[65] (2012) |
√ | √ | √ | √ | 69 | 水箱、厨房、淋浴 | 52 | 管网余氯范围为0.6~1 mg/L, pH范围为7.2~7.8 | ||||||||
土耳其[66] (2013) |
√ | √ | √ | 160 | 医院供水 | 21 | NTM与水温、pH或游离氯水平之间没有显着相关性 | |||||||||
加拿大[67] (2014) |
√ | √ | 183 | 医院供水 | 58 | 医院供水系统中的NTM由末端污染造成, 而非来自市政供水 | ||||||||||
中国[56] (2014) |
√ | √ | √ | 66 | 宾馆供水 | 64 | ||||||||||
意大利[57] (2014) |
√ | √ | √ | √ | 55 | 建筑供水、管网生物膜、泳池 | 72 | 泳池检出浓度最高, 为3.1×104 CFU/L;建筑供水系统可能含有大量死端供水, 导致含NTM生物膜生长 |
注:M. Go代表戈登分枝杆菌 (M. Gordonaege) ;M.Fl代表微黄分枝杆菌 (M. flavescens) ;M. Ka代表堪萨斯分枝杆菌 (M. kansasii) ;M. Ch代表龟分枝杆菌 (M. chelonae) ;M. Fo代表偶发分枝杆菌 (M. fortuitum) ; M. Mu代表产粘液分枝杆菌 (M.mucogenicum) ;M. Rh代表罗得西亚分枝杆菌 (M. rhodesiae) ;M. Pe代表外来分枝杆菌 (M. peregrinum) ;M. Av代表鸟分枝杆菌 (M. avium) ;M. Te代表土分枝杆菌 (M. terrae) ;M. Le代表缓黄分枝杆菌 (M. lentiflavum) ;M. In代表胞内分枝杆菌 (M. intracellulare) 。
2.2 建筑供水系统中分枝杆菌的影响因素
国外研究表明温度是影响分枝杆菌生长最重要的因素, 其他主要影响因素包括建筑供水系统中的余氯浓度、营养物质等。
温度:在水温较高的夏季 (14.8 ℃) , NTM的检出率明显高于水温较低的冬季 (8.7 ℃)
余氯:温度的升高导致了建筑热水中的余氯含量降低, 建筑热水系统中余氯的含量明显低于生活给水
菌落总数:吴菡
系统 |
采样点 | 细菌数/CFU/L |
给水系统 |
实验楼 |
16 000 |
教学楼A |
3 960 | |
教学楼B |
10 400 | |
住宅3 |
0 | |
宾馆2 |
0 | |
热水系统 |
浴室C |
6 000 |
浴室D |
5 000 | |
浴室E |
7 677 | |
住宅3 |
700 | |
宾馆2 |
2 300 |
营养物质:目前, 国内外学者在对水质的生物稳定性研究中, 主要选取有机碳控制因子:可生物同化有机碳 (assimilable organic carbon, AOC) 和可生物降解溶解性有机碳 (biodegradable dissolved organic carbon, BDOC) 等;磷控制因子:生物可利用磷 (microbially available phosphorus, MAP) 对水质进行评价。
Falkinham等
然而, 当MAP成为细菌生长的限制性营养因子时, 营养物质浓度的增加, 不一定利于分枝杆菌的生长。磷浓度从4.2 μg/L增加到13.8 μg/L时, 供水管网中的HPC大量增加, 分枝杆菌数量则呈现出下降趋势
Proctor等
水温升高利于分枝杆菌的生长
3 建筑供水系统中分枝杆菌的控制技术
3.1 氯及氯化物消毒技术
我国水处理工艺普遍采用液氯作消毒剂, 但是氯消毒剂易挥发、不稳定、维持作用时间相对较短, 相比氯消毒, 氯胺的化学稳定性高
Zhang等
3.2 银离子消毒技术
研究表明0.051 mg/L的银离子对建筑热水系统中的细菌总数、异养菌和大肠杆菌均有显著杀灭作用
3.3 热消毒技术
高温消毒 (或巴氏灭菌法) 是一种不需要特殊设备而且可以迅速实施的消毒技术。通常需要将热水温度提高到71~77 ℃, 使出口处的温度至少达到65℃
3.4 紫外线消毒技术
紫外线杀菌消毒是利用适当波长的紫外线 (200~280 nm) 破坏微生物机体细胞中的DNA或RNA的分子结构, 达到杀菌消毒的效果。紫外线消毒具有广谱高效的杀菌能力, 无二次污染 (消毒副产物)
上述各种水处理消毒技术各有利弊, 银离子具有持续消毒能力, 但经济消耗较大;热消毒虽然灭菌效果良好, 但同时存在烫伤和能源浪费问题;二氧化氯更适合热水中用于控制分枝杆菌;紫外线没有持续杀菌能力。表5对比分析了不同热水消毒系统中NTM检出率。根据水质与管网特征, 研究发现甲基杆菌属可能能够抑制分枝杆菌的生长
表5 不同热水消毒系统中的非结核分枝杆菌检出情况[96]
消毒技术 |
建筑物 | 样品总数/个 | NTM+/% | NTM-/% |
H2O2+Ag | A | 30 | 96.7 | 3.3 |
热消毒 |
B | 30 | 0.0 | 100.0 |
二氧化氯消毒 |
C | 30 | 20.0 | 80.0 |
未处理 |
D | 30 | 70.0 | 30.0 |
总计 |
120 | 46.7 | 53.3 |
注:NTM+指检测阳性;NTM-指检测阴性。
4 问题与展望
分枝杆菌作为一种新型饮用水中的条件致病菌, 属于耐氯细菌。当余氯较低, 温度较高时, 建筑给水系统中的分枝杆菌加速繁衍, 这对水质监测预警提出了更高的挑战。分枝杆菌在出厂水中的含量低, 但在供水系统中的浓度不断累积, 会对健康产生较大的风险。随着城市老龄人口膨胀、免疫系统疾病患者增多, 新型条件致病菌导致的风险不容忽视。建设供水水质监控网络系统及预警系统, 通过对供水系统全流程水质监控、对突发性水质风险进行准确预警, 是实现城市建筑供水精细化管理的基础, 是保障饮用水安全的举措。
[1] 廖一鸣. 上海市城市供水系统微生物再生机理及其控制技术研究:[学位论文]. 上海:上海交通大学, 2013
[2] Petterson S R, Stenstroem T A. Quantification of pathogen inactivation efficacy by free chlorine disinfection of drinking water for QMRA. Journal of Water and Health, 2015, 13 (3) : 625~644
[3] Tsivtsivadze N, Khatiashvili E, Matchacariani L, et al. About the determination of chlorine dose for drinking water disinfection. Ecology, Economics, Education and Legislation, 2015 (1) :11~17
[4] Ohkouchi Y, Ly B T, Ishikawa S, et al. Determination of an acceptable assimilable organic carbon (AOC) level for biological stability in water distribution systems with minimized chlorine residual. Environ Monit Assess, 2013, 185 (2) : 1427~1436
[5] Proctor C R, Hammes F. Drinking water microbiology-from meas-urement to management. Curr Opin Biotechnol, 2015, 33 (1) : 87~94
[6] Li W, Wang F, Zhang J, et al. Community shift of biofilms developed in a full-scale drinking water distribution system switching from different water sources. Science of The Total Environment, 2016, 544 (11) : 499~506
[7] Zeng W, Jiang S, Liang X, et al. Investigation of a community outbreak of diarrhea associated with drinking water in suburb of Chengdu, China. Open Journal of Epidemiology, 2015, 5 (3) : 147~154
[8] Benedict K M, Reses H, Vigar M, et al. Surveillance for waterborne disease outbreaks associated with drinking water - United States, 2013~2014. Mmwr-Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 2017, 66 (44) : 1216~1221
[9] 张艺馨, 赵锂, 徐冰峰, 等. 浅谈国外对建筑管道中机会致病菌的研究. 价值工程, 2017, 36 (13) : 228~231
[10] 李欢, 赵建夫, 王虹. 饮用水输配系统中条件致病菌的健康风险和生长因素. 中国给水排水, 2017, 33 (10) : 41~45
[11] Ashbolt N J. Microbial contamination of drinking water and human health from community water systems. Current Environmental Health Reports, 2015, 2 (1) : 95~106
[12] 刘文君, 王小亻毛, 王占生. 饮用水水质标准的发展:从卫生、安全到健康的理念. 给水排水, 2017, 53 (10) : 1~3, 61
[13] Wang H, Edwards M A, Falkinham J O, et al. Probiotic approach to pathogen control in premise plumbing systems? A review. Environmental Science & Technology, 2013, 47 (18) : 10117~10128
[14] Besner M-C, Prevost M, Regli S. Assessing the public health risk of microbial intrusion events in distribution systems: Conceptual model, available data, and challenges. Water Research, 2011, 45 (3) : 961~979
[15] Pedro-Botet M L, Stout J E, Yu V L. Legionnaires' disease contracted from patient homes: The coming of the third plague? European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, 2002, 21 (10) : 699~705
[16] Johnson J, Driscoll M, Cohen M, et al. Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex (MAC) producing a periportal pseudotumor in a patient with HIV and a normal CD4 count. Acg Case Reports Journal, 2016, 3 (4) :92~94
[17] Marusic A, Katalnic-Jankovic V, Popovic-Grle S, et al. Mycobacterium xenopi pulmonary disease - epidemiology and clinical features in non-immunocompromised patients. J Infect, 2009, 58 (2) : 108~112
[18] 任红星. 饮用水给水系统中微生物群落时空分布及其动态变化规律研究 :[学位论文]. 杭州:浙江大学, 2016
[19] Wang H, Bedard E, Prevost M, et al. Methodological approaches for monitoring opportunistic pathogens in premise plumbing: A review. Water Research, 2017, 117 (3) : 68~86
[20] 杨怀霞. 上海水中非结核分枝杆菌分布情况研究:[学位论文]. 上海:复旦大学, 2011
[21] 辛茶香, 张周云, 熊国亮. 分枝杆菌菌种鉴定方法及其进展. 实验与检验医学, 2016, 34 (1) : 1~3, 7
[22] Billinger M E, Olivier K N, Viboud C, et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria-associated lung disease in hospitalized persons, United States, 1998~2005. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 2009, 15 (10) : 1562~1569
[23] Marras T K, Chedore P, Ying A M, et al. Isolation prevalence of pulmonary non-tuberculous mycobacteria in Ontario, 1997~2003. Thorax, 2007, 62 (8) : 661~666
[24] EPA . National primary drinking water regulations: Long term 1 enhanced surface water treatment rule, final rule. Federal Register, 2002, 67 (9) : 1811~1844
[25] Taylor R, Falkinham J, Norton C, et al. Chlorine, chloramine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone susceptibility of mycobacterium avium. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2000, 66 (4) : 1702~1705
[26] 孙谦. 分子生物学快速鉴定分枝杆菌方法学比较及其耐药研究:[学位论文]. 杭州:浙江大学, 2012
[27] Laganowsky A, Reading E, Allison T M, et al. Membrane proteins bind lipids selectively to modulate their structure and function. Nature, 2014, 510 (7503) : 172~175
[28] Bouam A, Heidarieh P, Shahraki A H, et al. Mycobacterium ahvazicum sp. nov., the nineteenth species of the Mycobacterium simiae complex. Sci Rep, 2018, 8 (1) : 4138
[29] Stackebrandt E, Rainey F A, Wardrainey N L. Proposal for a new hierarchic classification system, actinobacteria classis nov. International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 1997, 47 (2) : 479~491
[30] Shi C H, Zhang H, Wang L M, et al. The rapeutic efficacy of a tuberculosis DNA vaccine encoding heat shock protein 65 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the human interleukin 2 fusion gene. Tuberculosis (Edinburgh, Scotland) , 2009, 89 (1) : 54~61
[31] 赵宇中, 谢建平. 全球分枝杆菌组学研究十年纵览:以结核分枝杆菌为例. 微生物学通报, 2013, 40 (10) : 1929~1948
[32] Huang S W, Hsu B M. Survey of naegleria from Taiwan recreational waters using culture enrichment combined with PCR. Acta Tropica, 2011, 119 (2~3) : 114~118
[33] 刘传桂, 王冬梅, 张李荣, 等. 非结核分枝杆菌荧光定量PCR检测和分子流行病学研究. 黑龙江医学, 2013, 37 (4) : 273~274
[34] Huseein Z, Landt O, Wirths B, et al. Detection of non-tuberculous mycobacteria in hospital water by culture and molecular methods. Int J Med Microbiol, 2009, 299 (4) : 281~290
[35] Rhodes G, Fluri A, Gerber M, et al. Detection of mycobacterium immunogenum by real-time quantitative taqman PCR. J Microbiol Methods, 2008, 73 (3) : 266~268
[36] Radomski N, Roguet A, Lucas F S, et al. AtpE gene as a new useful specific molecular target to quantify Mycobacteriumin environmental samples. BMC Microbiology, 2013, 13 (1) :277
[37] Li D, Tong T, Zeng S, et al. Quantification of viable bacteria in wastewater treatment plants by using propidium monoazide combined with quantitative PCR (PMA-qPCR) . Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2014, 26 (2) : 299~306
[38] 罗剑飞, 林炜铁, 郭勇. PMA与PCR结合的细菌活细胞检测方法. 华南理工大学学报 (自然科学版) , 2010, 38 (9) : 142~146
[39] Lee E S, Lee M H, Kim B S. Evaluation of propidium monoazide-quantitative PCR to detect viable mycobacterium fortuitum after chlorine, ozone, and ultraviolet disinfection. Int J Food Microbiol, 2015, 210 (10) : 143~148
[40] Nocker A, Sossa K E, Camper A K. Molecular monitoring of disinfection efficacy using propidium monoazide in combination with quantitative PCR. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 2007, 70 (2) : 252~260
[41] Chiao T H, Clancy T M, Pinto A, et al. Differential resistance of drinking water bacterial populations to monochloramine disinfection. Environmental Science & Technology, 2014, 48 (7) : 4038~4047
[42] Chen N T, Chang C W. Rapid quantification of viable legionellae in water and biofilm using ethidium monoazide coupled with real-time quantitative PCR. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2010, 109 (2) : 623~634
[43] Adela Yanez M, Nocker A, Soria-Soria E, et al. Quantification of viable legionella pneumophila cells using propidium monoazide combined with quantitative PCR. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 2011, 85 (2) : 124~130
[44] Gensberger E T, Sessitsch A, Kostic T. Propidium monoazide-quantitative polymerase chain reaction for viable escherichia coli and pseudomonas aeruginosa detection from abundant background microflora. Analytical Biochemistry, 2013, 441 (1) : 69~72
[45] Fittipaldi M, Codony F, Adrados B, et al. Viable real-time PCR in environmental samples: Can all data be interpreted directly? Microbial Ecology, 2011, 61 (1) : 7~12
[46] Margulies M, Egholm M, Altman W E, et al. Genome sequencing in microfabricated high-density picolitre reactors. Nature, 2005, 437 (7057) : 376~380
[47] Beumer A, King D, Donohue M, et al. Detection of mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in drinking water and biofilms by quantitative PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2010, 76 (21) : 7367~7370
[48] Sajduda A, Martin A, Portaels F, et al. Hsp65 PCR-restriction analysis (PRA) with capillary electrophoresis for species identification and differentiation of mycobacterium kansasii and mycobacterium chelonae-Mycobacterium abscessus group. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2012, 16 (3) : E193~E197
[49] Khan I U, Selbaraju S B, Yadav J S. Method for rapid identification and differentiation of the species of the mycobacterium chelonae complex based on 16S-23S rRNA gene internal transcribed spacer PCR-restriction analysis. J Clin Microbiol, 2005, 43 (9) : 4466~4472
[50] Whiley H, Keegan A, Fallowfield H, et al. Detection of legionella, L. pneumophila and mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) along potable water distribution pipelines. Environmental Research and Public Health, 2014, 11 (7) : 7393~7405
[51] Haig S J, Kotlarz N, Lipuma J J, et al. A high-throughput approach for identification of nontuberculous mycobacteria in drinking water reveals relationship between water age and mycobacterium avium. mBio, 2018, 9 (1) : e02354-17
[52] Cui Q, Fang T, Huang Y, et al. Evaluation of bacterial pathogen diversity, abundance and health risks in urban recreational water by amplicon next-generation sequencing and quantitative PCR. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2017, 57 (7) : 137~149
[53] Falkinham J O, Hilborn E D, Arouino M J, et al. Epidemiology and ecology of opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens: Legionella pneumophila, mycobacterium avium, and pseudomonas aeruginosa. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2015, 123 (8) : 749~758
[54] Norton C D, Lechevllier M W, Falkinham J O. Survival of mycobacterium avium in a model distribution system. Water Res, 2004, 38 (6) : 1457~1466
[55] Van Der Wielen P W J J, Van Der Kooij D. Nontuberculous mycobacteria, fungi, and opportunistic pathogens in unchlorinated drinking water in the Netherlands. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2013, 79 (3) : 825~834
[56] Hull N M, Holinger E P, Ross K A, et al. Longitudinal and source-to-tap New Orleans, LA, U.S.A. drinking water microbiology . Environ Sci Technol, 2017, 51 (8) : 4220~4229
[57] Briancesco R, Semproni M, Paradiso R, et al. Nontuberculous mycobacteria: an emerging risk in engineered environmental habitats. Annals of Microbiology, 2013, 64 (2) : 735~740
[58] D'antonio S, Rogliani P, Paone G, et al. An unusual outbreak of nontuberculous mycobacteria in hospital respiratory wards: Association with nontuberculous mycobacterial colonization of hospital water supply network. Int J Mycobacteriol, 2016, 5 (2) : 244~247
[59] 陈超, 徐鹏, 李静, 等. 城市生活饮用水中非结核分枝杆菌调查. 微生物与感染, 2008, 3 (4) : 215~218
[60] 张玲, 李立军, 潘颖, 等. 丰台区6家宾馆水样品中非结核分枝杆菌调查. 环境卫生学杂志, 2014, 4 (3) : 235~237, 242
[61] Thomson R, Tolson C, Carter R, et al. Isolation of nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) from household water and shower aerosols in patients with pulmonary disease caused by NTM. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 2013, 51 (9) : 3006~3011
[62] Kusnetsov J, Torvinen E, Perola O, et al. Colonization of hospital water systems by legionellae, mycobacteria and other heterotrophic bacteria potentially hazardous to risk group patients . Apmis, 2003, 111 (5) : 546~556
[63] 张艺馨. 建筑生活热水中军团菌和非结核分枝杆菌的研究 :[学位论文]. 昆明:昆明理工大学, 2017
[64] Fischeder R, Schulzerobbecke R, Weber A. Occurrence of mycobacteria in drinking-water samples. Zentralblatt Fur Hygiene Und Umweltmedizin, 1991, 192 (2) : 154~158
[65] Fernandez-rendon E, Cerna-Cortes J F, Ramirez-Medina M A, et al. Mycobacterium mucogenicum and other non-tuberculous mycobacteria in potable water of a trauma hospital: A potential source for human infection. J Hosp Infect, 2012, 80 (1) : 74~76
[66] Genc G E, Richter E, Erturan Z. Isolation of nontuberculous mycobacteria from hospital waters in Turkey. Apmis, 2013, 121 (12) : 1192~1197
[67] Crago B, Ferrato C, Drews S J, et al. Surveillance and molecular characterization of non-tuberculous mycobacteria in a hospital water distribution system over a three-year period. Journal of Hospital Infection, 2014, 87 (1) : 59~62
[68] Torvinen E, Lehtola M J, Martikainen P J, et al. Survival of mycobacterium avium in drinking water biofilms as affected by water flow velocity, availability of phosphorus, and temperature. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2007, 73 (19) : 6201~6207
[69] Falkinham J O. Nontuberculous mycobacteria from household plumbing of patients with nontuberculous mycobacteria disease. Emerg Infect Dis, 2011, 17 (3) : 419~424
[70] 吴菡. 建筑供水系统抗生素耐药性细菌的分布与灭活研究 :[学位论文]. 北京:北京交通大学, 2016
[71] Falkinham J O. Surrounded by mycobacteria: nontuberculous mycobacteria in the human environment. J Appl Microbiol, 2009, 107 (2) : 356~367
[72] Falkinham J O, Norton C D, Lechevallier M W. Factors influencing numbers of mycobacterium avium, mycobacterium intracellulare, and other mycobacteria in drinking water distribution systems. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2001, 67 (3) : 1225~1231
[73] Torvinen E, Suomalainen S, Lehtola M J, et al. Mycobacteria in water and loose deposits of drinking water distribution systems in Finland. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2004, 70 (4) : 1973~1981
[74] Falkinham J. Impact of human activities on the ecology of nontuberculous mycobacteria. Future Microbiology, 2010, 5 (6) : 951~960
[75] Proctor C R, Dai D, Edwards M A, et al. Interactive effects of temperature, organic carbon, and pipe material on microbiota composition and Legionella pneumophila in hot water plumbing systems. Microbiome, 2017, 5 (1) : 130
[76] Mathieu L, Bouteleux C, Fass S, et al. Reversible shift in the alpha-, beta- and gamma-proteobacteria populations of drinking water biofilms during discontinuous chlorination. Water Research, 2009, 43 (14) : 3375~3386
[77] Brodtmann N V, Russo P J. Use of chloramine for reduction of trihalomethanes and disinfection of drinking-water. J Am Water Works Ass, 1979, 71 (1) : 40~42
[78] Chu W, Li X, Bond T, et al. The formation of haloacetamides and other disinfection by-products from non-nitrogenous low-molecular weight organic acids during chloramination. Chemical Engineering Journal, 2016, 285 (2) : 164~171
[79] Regan J M, Harrington G W, Baribeau H, et al. Diversity of nitrifying bacteria in full-scale chloraminated distribution systems. Water Res, 2003, 37 (1) : 197~205
[80] Regan J M, Harrington G W, Noguera D R. Ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing bacterial communities in a pilot-scale chloraminated drinking water distribution system. Appl Environ Microbiol, 2002, 68 (1) : 73~81
[81] Richardson S D, Thruston A D, Caughran T V, et al. Identification of new drinking water disinfection by-products from ozone, chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and chlorine. Water Air Soil Poll, 2000, 123 (1~4) : 95~102
[82] Sharif M N, Farahat A, Al-Zahrani M A, et al. Optimization of chlorination boosters in drinking water distribution network for Al-Khobar City in Saudi Arabia. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 2016, 9 (9) : 1~11
[83] Al-Otoum F, Al-Ghouti M A, Ahmed T A, et al. Disinfection by-products of chlorine dioxide (chlorite, chlorate, and trihalomethanes) : Occurrence in drinking water in Qatar. Chemosphere, 2016, 164 (12) : 649~656
[84] Zhang J, Li W-Y, Wang F, et al. Exploring the biological stability situation of a full scale water distribution system in south China by three biological stability evaluation methods. Chemosphere, 2016, 161 (10) : 43~52
[85] 陈雨乔, 段晓笛, 陆品品, 等. 给水管网中耐氯性细菌的灭活特性研究. 环境科学, 2012, 33 (1) : 104~109
[86] 沈晨. 生活热水银离子消毒技术研究 :[学位论文]. 昆明:昆明理工大学, 2013
[87] 徐飞. 负载纳米银活性炭制备条件优化及饮用水消毒应用研究 :[学位论文]. 哈尔滨:哈尔滨工业大学, 2014
[88] 谭晓君, 胡勇有, 陈超. 银纳米线复合静电纺丝膜终端饮用水处理装置电化学消毒效能研究. 环境科学学报, 2018, 38 (10) :3964~3972
[89] Whiley H, Bentham R, Brown M H. Legionella persistence in manufactured water systems: Pasteurization potentially select-ing for thermal tolerance. Front Microbiol, 2017, 8 (7) : 1330
[90] Shan A D, Dotson A D, Linden K G, et al. Impact of UV disinfection combined with chlorination/chloramination on the formation of halonitromethanes and haloacetonitriles in drinking water. Environ Sci Technol, 2011, 45 (8) : 3657~3664
[91] Hofmann R, Wang D, Andews S, et al. Disinfection by-product formation in the UV/chlorine advanced oxidation process for drinking water treatment. Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society, 2014, 248 (8) : 535
[92] Christensen J, Linden K G. How particles affect UV light in the UV disinfection of unfiltered drinking water. J Am Water Works Ass, 2003, 95 (4) : 179~189
[93] Lyon B A, Dotson A D, Linden K G, et al. The effect of inorganic precursors on disinfection byproduct formation during UV-chlorine/chloramine drinking water treatment. Water Res, 2012, 46 (15) : 4653~4664
[94] Zhu Y, Wang H, Li X, et al. Characterization of biofilm and corrosion of cast iron pipes in drinking water distribution system with UV/Cl2 disinfection. Water Research, 2014, 60 (1) : 174~181
[95] Munoz E M C, Ji P, Pruden A, et al. Inhibition of adherence of Mycobacterium avium to plumbing surface biofilms of methylobacterium spp. Pathogens, 2017, 6 (3) :42
[96] Sebakova H, Kozisek F, Mudra R, et al. Incidence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in four hot water systems using various types of disinfection. Can J Microbiol, 2008, 54 (11) : 891~898